하나비비에서 퍼옵니다. Posted By: namsan (烏頭放情(오두방정)) on 'Science' Title: [퍼온글] 과학(Science)이란 무엇인가.. Date: Mon Dec 4 16:58:43 1995 다음은 Encarta`95에서 Science 부분을 퍼온 글이다. 서양과학의 일반적인 상식적 기초위에 그 기원과 간단한 역사 그리고 현대서양과학의 위치를 소개하고 있다. 동양과학이 제대로 소개되지 않고 있으나 과학보드에 필히 필요한 상식적인 자료라고봐서 여기에 올려둔다.다음 기회에 동양과학도 아울러 다루도록 하기 위한 좋은 전제라고 생각이 된다. 　　　　　　　　　　　　 Science Science (Latin scientia, from scire): term used in its broadest meaning to denote systematized knowledge in any field, but applied usually to the organization of objectively verifiable sense experience. The pursuit of knowledge in this context is known as pure science, to distinguish it from applied science, which is the search for practical uses of scientific knowledge, and from technology, through which applications are realized. For additional information, see separate articles on most of the sciences mentioned and biographies of scientists and scholars whose names are not followed by dates. Origins of Science Efforts to systematize knowledge can be traced to prehistoric times, through the designs that Paleolithic people painted on the walls of caves, through numerical records that were carved in bone or stone, and through artifacts surviving from Neolithic civilizations. The oldest written records of protoscientific investigations come from Mesopotamian cultures; lists of astronomical observations, chemical substances, and disease symptoms, as well as a variety of mathematical tables, were inscribed in cuneiform characters on clay tablets. Other tablets dating from about 2000 BC show that the Babylonians had knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem, solved quadratic equations, and developed a sexagesimal system of measurement (based on the number 60) from which modern time and angle units stem. (NUMBER SYSTEMS); NUMERALS. From almost the same period, papyri documents have been discovered in the Nile Valley, containing information on the treatment of wounds and diseases, on the distribution of bread and beer, and on finding the volume of a portion of a pyramid. Some of the present-day units of length can be traced to Egyptian prototypes, and the calendar in common use today is the indirect result of pre-Hellenic astronomical observations. Rise of Scientific Theory Scientific knowledge in Egypt and Mesopotamia was chiefly of a practical nature, with little rational organization. Among the first Greek scholars to seek the fundamental causes of natural phenomena was the philosopher Thales, in the 6th century BC, who introduced the concept that the earth was a flat disk floating on the universal element, water. The mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, who followed him, established a movement in which mathematics became a discipline fundamental to all scientific investigation. The Pythagorean scholars postulated a spherical earth moving in a circular orbit about a central fire. At Athens, in the 4th century BC, Ionian natural philosophy and Pythagorean mathematical science combined to produce the syntheses of the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. At the Academy of Plato, deductive reasoning and mathematical representation were emphasized; at the Lyceum of Aristotle, inductive reasoning and qualitative description were stressed. The interplay between these two approaches to science has led to most subsequent advances (LOGIC). During the so-called Hellenistic Age following the death of Alexander the Great, the mathematician, astronomer, and geographer Eratosthenes made a remarkably accurate measurement of the earth. Also, the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos espoused a heliocentric (sun-centered) planetary system, although this concept did not gain acceptance in ancient times. The mathematician and inventor Archimedes laid the foundations of mechanics and hydrostatics; the philosopher and scientist Theophrastus became the founder of botany; the astronomer Hipparchus developed trigonometry; and the anatomists and physicians Herophilus and Erasistratus based anatomy and physiology on dissection. Following the destruction of Carthage and Corinth by the Romans in 146 BC, scientific inquiry lost its impetus until a brief revival took place in the 2nd century AD under the Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius. At this time the geocentric (earth-centered) Ptolemaic system, advanced by the astronomer Ptolemy, and the medical works of the physician and philosopher Galen became standard scientific treatises for the ensuing age. A century later the new experimental science of alchemy arose, springing from the practice of metallurgy. By 300, however, alchemy had acquired an overlay of secrecy and symbolism that vitiated the advantages experimentation might have brought to science. Medieval and Renaissance Science During the Middle Ages, six leading culture groups were in existence: the Latin West, the Greek East, the Chinese, the East Indian, the Arabic, and the Mayan. The Latin group contributed little to science before the 13th century, the Greek never rose above paraphrases of ancient learning, and the Mayan had no influence on the growth of science. In China, science enjoyed periods of progress, but no sustained drive existed. Chinese mathematics reached its zenith in the 13th century with the development of ways of solving algebraic equations by means of matrices, and with the use of the arithmetic triangle. More important, however, was the impact on Europe of several practical Chinese innovations. These include the processes for manufacturing paper and gunpowder, and the use of printing and the mariner's compass. In India, the chief contributions to science were the formulation of the so-called Hindu-Arabic numerals, which are in use today, and in the conversion of trigonometry to a quasi-modern form. These advances were transmitted first to the Arabs, who combined the best elements from Babylonian, Greek, Chinese, and Hindu sources. By the 9th century Baghdad, on the Tigris River, had become a center for the translation of scientific works, and in the 12th century this learning was transmitted to Europe through Spain, Sicily, and Byzantium. Recovery of ancient scientific works at European universities led, in the 13th century, to controversy on scientific methods. The so-called realists espoused the Platonic approach, whereas the nominalists preferred the views of Aristotle (NOMINALISM); REALISM; SCHOLASTICISM. At the universities of Oxford and Paris, such discussions led to advances in optics and kinematics that paved the way for Galileo and the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. The Black Death and the Hundred Years' War disrupted scientific progress for more than a century, but by the 16th century a revival was well under way. In 1543 the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies), which revolutionized astronomy. Also published in 1543, De Corpis Humani Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) by the Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius corrected and modernized the anatomical teachings of Galen and led to the discovery of the circulation of the blood. Two years later the Ars Magna (Great Art) of the Italian mathematician, physician, and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano initiated the modern period in algebra with the solution of cubic and quartic equations. See MATHEMATICS. Modern Science Essentially modern scientific methods and results appeared in the 17th century because of Galileo's successful combination of the functions of scholar and artisan. To the ancient methods of induction and deduction, Galileo added systematic verification through planned experiments, using newly discovered scientific instruments such as the telescope, the microscope, and the thermometer. Later in the century, experimentation was widened through the use of the barometer by the Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli; the pendulum clock by the Dutch mathematician, physicist, and astronomer Christiaan Huygens; and the exhaust pump by the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle, and the German physicist Otto von Guericke. The culmination of these efforts was the universal law of gravitation, published in 1687 by the English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. At the same time, the invention of the calculus by Newton and the German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz laid the foundation of today's sophisticated level of science and mathematics. The scientific discoveries of Newton and the philosophical system of the French mathematician and philosopher RenぁDescartes provided the background for the materialistic science of the 18th century, in which life processes were explained on a physicochemical basis. Confidence in the scientific attitude carried over to the social sciences and inspired the so-called Age of Enlightenment, which culminated in the French Revolution of 1789 (ENLIGHTENMENT, AGE OF). The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier published Traitぁ複覆entaire de chimie (Treatise on Chemical Elements, 1789), with which the revolution in quantitative chemistry opened. Scientific developments during the 18th century paved the way for the following 샴entury of correlation,⇒so called for its broad generalizations in science. These included the atomic theory of matter postulated by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton; the electromagnetic theories of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell, also of Great Britain; and the law of the conservation of energy, enunciated by the British physicist James Prescott Joule and others (ATOM AND ATOMIC THEORY); ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION; ENERGY; THERMODYNAMICS. The most comprehensive of the biological theories was that of evolution, put forward by Charles Darwin in his On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), which stirred as much controversy in society at large as the work of Copernicus. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, the fact, but not the mechanism, of evolution was generally accepted, with disagreement centering on the genetic processes through which it occurs. But as biology became more firmly based, physics was shaken by the unexpected consequences of quantum theory and relativity. In 1927 the German physicist Werner Heisenberg formulated the so-called uncertainty principle, which held that limits existed on the extent to which, on the subatomic scale, coordinates of an individual event can be determined. In other words, the principle stated the impossibility of predicting, with precision, that a particle such as an electron would be in a certain place at a certain time, moving at a certain velocity. Quantum mechanics instead dealt with statistical inferences relating to large numbers of individual events. Scientific Communication Throughout history, scientific knowledge has been transmitted chiefly through written documents, some of which are more than 4000 years old. From ancient Greece, however, no substantial scientific work survives from the period before the geometrician Euclid's Elements (circa 300 BC). Of the treatises written by leading scientists after that time, only about half are extant. Some of these are in Greek, and others were preserved through translation by Arab scholars in the Middle Ages. Medieval schools and universities were largely responsible for preserving these works and for fostering scientific activity. Since the Renaissance, however, this work has been shared by scientific societies; the oldest such society, which still survives, is the Accademia del Lincei (to which Galileo belonged), established in 1603 to promote the study of mathematical, physical, and natural sciences. Later in the century, governmental support of science led to the founding of the Royal Society of London (1662) and the Acad覆ie des Sciences de Paris (1666). These two organizations initiated publication of scientific journals, the former under the title Philosophical Transactions and the latter as M覆oires. During the 18th century academies of science were established by other leading nations. In the U.S., a club organized in 1727 by Benjamin Franklin became, in 1769, the American Philosophical Society for 선romoting useful knowledge.⇒In 1780 the American Academy of Arts and Sciences was organized by John Adams, who became the second U.S. president in 1797. In 1831 the British Association for the Advancement of Science met for the first time, followed in 1848 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and in 1872 by the Association Fran網ise pour l'Avancement des Sciences. These national organizations issue the journals Nature, Science, and Compte-Rendus, respectively. The number of scientific journals grew so rapidly during the early 20th century that A World List of Scientific Periodicals Published in the Years 1900-1933 contained some 36,000 entries in 18 languages. A large number of these are issued by specialized societies devoted to individual sciences, and most of them are fewer than 100 years old. Since late in the 19th century, communication among scientists has been facilitated by the establishment of international organizations, such as the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1873) and the International Council of Research (1919). The latter is a scientific federation subdivided into international unions for each of the various sciences. The unions hold international congresses every few years, the transactions of which are usually published. In addition to national and international scientific organizations, numerous major industrial firms have research departments; some of them regularly publish accounts of the work done or else file reports with government patent offices, which in turn print abstracts in bulletins that are published periodically. Fields of Science Knowledge of nature originally was largely an undifferentiated observation and interrelation of experiences. The Pythagorean scholars distinguished only four sciences: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. By the time of Aristotle, however, other fields could also be recognized: mechanics, optics, physics, meteorology, zoology, and botany. Chemistry remained outside the mainstream of science until the time of Robert Boyle in the 17th century, and geology achieved the status of a science only in the 18th century. By that time the study of heat, magnetism, and electricity had become part of physics. During the 19th century scientists finally recognized that pure mathematics differs from the other sciences in that it is a logic of relations and does not depend for its structure on the laws of nature. Its applicability in the elaboration of scientific theories, however, has resulted in its continued classification among the sciences. The pure natural sciences are generally divided into two classes: the physical sciences and the biological, or life, sciences. The principal branches among the former are physics, astronomy, chemistry, and geology; the chief biological sciences are botany and zoology. The physical sciences can be subdivided to identify such fields as mechanics, cosmology, physical chemistry, and meteorology; physiology, embryology, anatomy, genetics, and ecology are subdivisions of the biological sciences. All classifications of the pure sciences, however, are arbitrary. In the formulations of general scientific laws, interlocking relationships among the sciences are recognized. These interrelationships are considered responsible for much of the progress today in several specialized fields of research, such as molecular biology and genetics. Several interdisciplinary sciences, such as biochemistry, biophysics, biomathematics, and bioengineering, have arisen, in which life processes are explained physicochemically. Biochemists, for example, synthesized deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); and the cooperation of biologists with physicists led to the invention of the electron microscope, through which viruses and gene mutations can be studied. The application of these interdisciplinary methods is also expected to produce significant advances in the fields of social sciences and behavioral sciences. The applied sciences include such fields as aeronautics, electronics, engineering, and metallurgy, which are applied physical sciences, and agronomy and medicine, which are applied biological sciences. In this case also, overlapping branches must be recognized. The cooperation, for example, between iatrophysics (a branch of medical research based on principles of physics) and bioengineering resulted in the development of the heart-lung machine used in open-heart surgery and in the design of artificial organs such as heart chambers and valves, kidneys, blood vessels, and inner-ear bones. Advances such as these are generally the result of research by teams of specialists representing different sciences, both pure and applied. This interrelationship between theory and practice is as important to the growth of science today as it was at the time of Galileo. Contributed by: Carl B. Boyer "Science," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.. 몇개의 파자가 퍼오는 과정에서 생겼지만 파자의 원 단어가 꼭 필요한 분은 메일로 연락바랍니다. 오두방정(namsan) **** 퍼오기 끝 --,--`-<@ 매일 그대와 아침햇살 받으며 매일 그대와 눈을 뜨고파.. 잠이 들고파.. Till the rivers flow up stream | Love is real \|||/ @@@ Till lovers cease to dream | Love is touch @|~j~|@ @^j^@ Till then, I'm yours, be mine | Love is free | ~ | @@ ~ @@